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Natural Occurrence and Processing

Diamonds are found in alluvial (loose earthy material deposited by running water) formations and in volcanic pipes, filled for most of their length with blue ground or kimberlite, an igneous rock consisting largely of serpentine. At the surface the blue ground is weathered to a clay called yellow ground. Diamantiferous (or diamondiferous), or diamond-yielding, earth is mined both by the open-pit method and by underground mining. After being removed to the surface, it is crushed and then concentrated. Sorting is done by passing the concentrated material in a stream of water over greased tables. The diamond, being largely water repellent, sticks to the grease, but the other minerals retain a film of water, which prevents them from adhering to the grease. The diamonds are then removed from the grease, cleaned, and graded for sale.

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Industrial Applications

In modern times diamonds have become indispensable to industry. Automobile magnate Henry Ford was the first to uncover the contemporary industrial uses of the stone. He sponsored research into its applications for the manufacturing sector, especially as a low-cost abrasive, and the Detroit area became a hub for dealers of diamond tools. The aircraft industry followed the lead of the automotive sector, becoming an avid user of diamond-based products. Diamonds used for industrial applications are usually of a lower grade than those found in the gemstone market, but they retain the same properties of hardness and durability. Diamond tools last much longer than those made from other sources and offer a nearly unmatched precision in cutting other substances. Additionally, such tools work faster and much more quietly than other alternatives.

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Diamond Cutting

Chunks of diamond eventually become small, perfectly shaped gemstones commonly used in engagement rings and other jewelry. Since diamond is the hardest known substance, diamond dust must be used to cut the stone. In cutting, a minuscule groove is incised into the surface of the diamond, and a cleaving iron is inserted into the groove. With a quick, forceful blow, the diamond should split perfectly along its naturally occurring planes. The lapidary determines further cuts by marking them off on the surface with ink. Next, a diamond saw, oiled with the unusual combination of diamond dust and olive oil, is rotated vertically on the surface of the raw gem. This device divides the diamond into new segments. These parts are then fed into a lathe-like device for grinding.

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Objective and Subjective Perceptions of Health

A well-trained physician, or an observant member of a family, can often tell at a glance that someone is unwell. There are obvious signs—pallor, sweating, unsteady gait, a bone-shaking cough. The converse is more challenging. Someone who appears to be outwardly perfectly fit—hale and hearty, sound in wind and limb—may harbor an early cancer that is eating away at a vital organ, or, when asked the right questions may reveal a potential mental health problem, though there is no physical evidence of a departure from excellent health. Health has many dimensions, and each must be assessed and measured on some sort of scale. This is what physicians do when conducting a routine medical history and physical examination, which includes various laboratory tests. The results of such an examination have a range of values that usually follow a normal distribution, and for many of these the decision that a particular value lies within or outside the range of normal is rather arbitrary, although it is based on empirical experience. For example, experience and follow-up of many sets of observations allow us to agree on what level of systolic and diastolic blood pressure give grounds for a confident recommendation that treatment is needed to reduce an excessively high pressure that could lead to a stroke or heart attack.

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Health Theories and Their Practical Application

Beliefs about the foundations of good health are inseparable from theories of disease. Primitive beliefs about good and evil spirits; the benevolent or malevolent intervention of fate, gods, or ancestors; disease as a punishment for sin (Murdock, 1980); theories such as those of Aristotle and Galen about the balance of bodily fluids (humors) and about the effects of miasmas or "bad air" survive in the names by which we know some common diseases, including influenza, malaria, cholera, and rheumatism. A preference for holiday resorts and convalescent hospitals at the seaside or in the mountains reflects a belief in the notion that some environments are inherently healthier than others—as, indeed, abundant evidence demonstrates.

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Definitions and Concepts of Health

In the preamble to the constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO) health is described as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." This description has often been criticized as being too vague. Further, it describes an ideal state rarely attained by most people, and it contains no ingredients that can be readily measured or counted, either at the individual or the population level.
Another definition, composed by specialists in preventive medicine, specifies some tangible components of health; calling it "a state characterized by anatomical, physiological, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with physical, biological, psychological, and social stress; a feeling of well-being; and freedom from the risk of disease and untimely death" (Stokes, Noren, and Shindell, 1982). Everything mentioned in this definition can be measured and counted at the individual and at the population level, although assessing "a feeling of well-being" may be a challenge, and "freedom from the risk of disease and untimely death" is not an achievable state.

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Health

Health is commonly thought of as the absence of disease, and indeed it is difficult to discuss one without the other. Equally problematic is the consideration of the health of the body apart from the state of the mind or the spirit, because historically the topics were closely connected, especially before the seventeenth century. Even with these difficulties in mind, it is still possible to focus on certain notions about the health of the human body as a natural state and about how this natural state could be restored or maintained.

One idea about health that unites many cultures, from the classical Indian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, ancient Greek, sub-Saharan African, Semitic, and native American, is the notion that there was a time when the human body existed in a perfect state of health and when no diseases beset it. People lived in harmony with nature, in a childlike state of material plenty and spiritual obedience. Bodily ills came into the world, so many stories go, when a ‘sin’, often one of disobedience, angered divine authority. One thinks of the myth of Pandora's box or the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden, as told in Genesis, as examples, but other cultures provide many more such tales. Stories about original sin and the fall from grace are, in short, as common as creation myths in their explanations for why humanity no longer experiences natural health and, in some cases, long physical life.

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The Eighteenth to the Twentieth Centuries

In the late 18th cent. the fashion for decorative buttons, watches, and snuff boxes almost superseded the wearing of jewelry. After 1800 the bracelet, which had dwindled (c.1500) in importance with the ruffed and cuffed long sleeve, was again in favor. The 19th cent. also saw the revival of the cameo and the introduction of the watch and chain and sets of jewelry. With the introduction of factory-made ornaments, artistry of workmanship declined. In the 20th cent. platinum became popular for settings. Costume jewelry, which followed the rapidly changing fashions in dress, was introduced (by Gabrielle Chanel), as was the wristwatch. There was a renewal of enthusiasm for handwrought pieces during the craft revival of the 1960s in the United States.

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The Middle Ages to the Seventeenth Century

Jewelry of the Middle Ages was massive; large brooches and girdles predominated. Amber was worn as a protection against evil spirits. After 1300 glass beads were used. The Renaissance brought a transformation in the art of the jeweler; noted artists and architects often designed or even rendered pieces of jewelry. Jewelry was splendid with enamel and precious stones; heavy gold link chains, jeweled collars, and the necklace with pendant were worn by both men and women. Jewelry, worn to excess, became overcrowded with stones, to the neglect of the design and setting. By the late 17th cent. the goldsmith and enameler gave way before the lapidary and mounter. A process of making imitation pearls was first discovered in 1680; thereafter, ropes of pearls became highly popular for women.

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The Ancient World

The wearing of jewelry has very ancient roots. The oldest examples discovered to date are about 75,000 old. Found in a cave in S Africa in 2004, they consist of pea-sized pierced shell beads that were probably strung into a necklace or bracelet. Other African beads have been found dating back some 45,000 years. In the ancient world, the art of jewelry making reached an elaborate development in East Asia with its wealth of precious stones and pearls. Egyptian relics also show a rare craftsmanship. The jewelry is largely emblematic, very colorful, and displays lotus flower and scarab motifs. Beads were used extensively, as in broad collars, and were often used for bartering. Armlets and anklets were also worn.